Creationists V/S Materialists
Materialists V/S Atheists
Atheists V/S Goodoers
And so on and so forth
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The Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) strongly discourages personal revenge, emphasizing forgiveness, patience, and pardoning others. He taught that forgiveness is superior to retaliation, especially when one has the power to take revenge.
The Sunnah means one of the character traits and/or habits of a person.
Transition periods of human beings versus the ranks that they can achieve as good-doers.
Hint: Good, better, best, to say the least …
P.S.: I prefer the term false gods.
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Clicks versus Misclicks.
Fits versus Misfits.
Demeanors versus Misdemeanors.
For the record, DUI stands for ‘‘Driving Under the Influence’’.
The primary hadith commanding Muslims to keep their beards states, “Cut the moustaches short and leave the beard (as it is)”. This hadith, reported by Ibn `Umar and found in both Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, is part of a larger instruction to act differently from non-believers. Most scholars interpret this as a command to let the beard grow, and many consider it an obligation (fard) for Muslim men, as detailed in sources like Sunnah.com.
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The command: The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) commanded to “Cut the moustaches short and leave the beard (as it is)”.
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The context: This instruction was given to differentiate Muslims from the “mushrikins” (pagans) and was an order to act contrary to their practices, as detailed in Sahih al-Bukhari.
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Scholarly interpretation: Most Islamic scholars consider keeping the beard to be an obligatory (fard) act for men, and a command to shave it is seen as sinful (haram), notes zakirnaik.
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Related practices: The hadith also mentions trimming the mustache short, which is considered a characteristic of the natural way (fitra).
Notifications and Anticipations
Anticipations and Gratifications
Goodwill and Goodness
Clicks and Contacts
Mice and Hands
Computers and Sitters
Good Versus Evil
Poverty and Fame
Units of sound
Versus
Voice waves
What’s in a name?
What’s in a word?
What’s in a title?
What’s in a heart?
What’s in an atom?
Picture Versus Motion-Picture
Bryan Cranston as a Chemistry teacher and Bob Odenkirk as an English teacher.
Prison Break, Breaking Bad, and then Better Call Saul
Noun and Verb, Name and Action, Law and Order, Punishment versus Reward
Inferno (Italian: [iɱˈfɛrno]; Italian for ‘Hell’) is the first part of Italian writer Dante Alighieri’s 14th-century narrative poem The Divine Comedy, followed by Purgatorio and Paradiso. The Inferno describes the journey of a fictionalised version of Dante himself through Hell, guided by the ancient Roman poet Virgil. In the poem, Hell is depicted as nine concentric circles of torment located within the Earth; it is the “realm […] of those who have rejected spiritual values by yielding to bestial appetites or violence, or by perverting their human intellect to fraud or malice against their fellowmen”.[1] As an allegory, the Divine Comedy represents the journey of the soul toward God, with the Inferno describing the recognition and rejection of sin.[2]
Prelude to Hell
Canto I
Gustave Doré’s engravings illustrated the Divine Comedy (1861–1868). Here, Dante is lost at the start of Canto I of the Inferno.
The poem begins on the night of Maundy Thursday on March 24 (or April 7), 1300, shortly before the dawn of Good Friday.[3][4] The narrator, Dante himself, is 35 years old, and thus “midway in the journey of our life” (Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita)[5] – half of the biblical lifespan of 70 (Psalm 89:10 in the Vulgate; numbered as Psalm 90:10 in the King James Bible). The poet finds himself lost in a dark wood (selva oscura),[6] astray from the “straight way” (diritta via,[7] also translatable as ‘right way’) of salvation. He sets out to climb directly up a small mountain, but his way is blocked by three beasts he cannot evade: a lonza[8] (usually rendered as ‘leopard’ or ‘leopon’),[9] a leone[10] (lion), and a lupa[11] (she-wolf). The three beasts, taken from Jeremiah 5:6,[12] are thought to symbolize the three kinds of sin that bring the unrepentant soul into one of the three major divisions of Hell. According to John Ciardi, these are incontinence (the she-wolf); violence and bestiality (the lion); and fraud and malice (the leopard).[13]
It is now dawn of Good Friday, April 8, with the sun rising in Aries. The beasts drive him back despairing into the darkness of error, a “lower place” (basso loco)[14] where the sun is silent (l sol tace).[15] However, Dante is rescued by a figure who announces that he was born sub Iulio[16] (i.e., in the time of Julius Caesar) and lived under Augustus: it is the shade of the Roman poet Virgil, author of the Aeneid, a Latin epic which also featured a journey through the underworld.
Canto II
On the evening of Good Friday, Dante hesitates as he follows Virgil; Virgil explains that he has been sent by Beatrice, the symbol of Divine Love. Beatrice had been moved to aid Dante by the Virgin Mary (symbolic of compassion) and Saint Lucia (symbolic of illuminating Grace). Rachel, symbolic of the contemplative life, also appears in the heavenly scene recounted by Virgil. The two of them then begin their journey to the underworld. Feeling uncertain of his worthiness for the journey, Dante reflects on the paths of Aeneas and Paul, who were granted access to the realms of the afterlife, and doubts his own capability to undertake such a passage (Inf. 2.10-36).
Canto III: Vestibule of Hell
Dante passes through the gate of Hell, which bears an inscription ending with the phrase “Lasciate ogne speranza, voi ch’intrate”,[17] most frequently translated as “Abandon all hope, ye who enter here”.[nb 1] Dante and his guide hear the anguished screams of the Uncommitted. These are the souls of people who in life took no sides; the opportunists who were for neither good nor evil, but instead were merely concerned with themselves. Among these Dante recognises a figure who made the “great refusal”, implied to be Pope Celestine V, whose “cowardice (in selfish terror for his own welfare) served as the door through which so much evil entered the Church”.[18] Mixed with them are outcasts who took no side in the Rebellion of Angels. These souls are forever unclassified; they are neither in Hell nor out of it, but reside on the shores of the Acheron. Naked and futile, they race around through the mist in eternal pursuit of an elusive, wavering banner (symbolic of their pursuit of ever-shifting self-interest) while relentlessly chased by swarms of wasps and hornets, who continually sting them.[19] Loathsome maggots and worms at the sinners’ feet drink the putrid mixture of blood, pus, and tears that flows down their bodies, symbolising the sting of their guilty conscience and the repugnance of sin. This may also be seen as a reflection of the spiritual stagnation in which they lived.
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Gustave Doré’s illustration of Canto III: Arrival of Charon
After passing through the vestibule, Dante and Virgil reach the ferry that will take them across the river Acheron and to Hell proper. The ferry is piloted by Charon, who does not want to let Dante enter, for he is a living being. Virgil forces Charon to take him by declaring, Vuolsi così colà dove si puote / ciò che si vuole (“It is so willed there where is power to do / That which is willed”),[20] referring to the fact that Dante is on his journey on divine grounds. The wailing and blasphemy of the damned souls entering Charon’s boat contrast with the joyful singing of the blessed souls arriving by ferry in the Purgatorio. The passage across the Acheron, however, is undescribed, since Dante faints and does not awaken until they reach the other side.
Nine circles of Hell
Overview
Virgil proceeds to guide Dante through the nine circles of Hell. The circles are concentric, representing a gradual increase in wickedness, and culminating at the centre of the earth, where Satan is held in bondage. The sinners of each circle are punished for eternity in a fashion fitting their crimes: each punishment is a contrapasso, a symbolic instance of poetic justice. For example, later in the poem, Dante and Virgil encounter fortune-tellers who must walk forward with their heads on backward, unable to see what is ahead, because they tried to see the future through forbidden means. Such a contrapasso “functions not merely as a form of divine revenge, but rather as the fulfilment of a destiny freely chosen by each soul during his or her life”.[21] People who sinned, but prayed for forgiveness before their deaths are found not in Hell but in Purgatory, where they labour to become free of their sins. Those in Hell are people who tried to justify their sins and were unrepentant.
The Map of Hell painting by Sandro Botticelli, among the extant ninety-two drawings originally included in his illustrated manuscript of the poem
A simplified depiction of Dante’s Inferno.
Dante’s Hell is structurally based on the ideas of Aristotle, but with “certain Christian symbolisms, exceptions, and misconstructions of Aristotle’s text”,[22] and a further supplement from Cicero’s De Officiis.[23] Virgil reminds Dante (the character) of “Those pages where the Ethics tells of three / Conditions contrary to Heaven’s will and rule / Incontinence, vice, and brute bestiality”.[24] Cicero, for his part, had divided sins between violence and fraud.[25] By conflating Cicero’s violence with Aristotle’s bestiality, and his fraud with malice or vice, Dante the poet obtained three major categories of sin, as symbolized by the three beasts that Dante encounters in Canto I: these are Incontinence, Violence/Bestiality, and Fraud/Malice.[22][26] Sinners punished for incontinence (also known as wantonness) – the lustful, the gluttonous, the hoarders and wasters, and the wrathful and sullen – all demonstrated weakness in controlling their appetites, desires, and natural urges; according to Aristotle’s Ethics, incontinence is less condemnable than malice or bestiality, and therefore these sinners are located in four circles of Upper Hell (Circles 2–5). These sinners endure lesser torments than do those consigned to Lower Hell, located within the walls of the City of Dis, for committing acts of violence and fraud – the latter of which involves, as Dorothy L. Sayers writes, “abuse of the specifically human faculty of reason”.[26] The deeper levels are organised into one circle for violence (Circle 7) and two circles for fraud (Circles 8 and 9). As a Christian, Dante adds Circle 1 (Limbo) to Upper Hell and Circle 6 (Heresy) to Lower Hell, making 9 Circles in total; incorporating the Vestibule of the Futile, this leads to Hell containing 10 main divisions.[26] This “9+1=10” structure is also found within the Purgatorio and Paradiso. Lower Hell is further subdivided: Circle 7 (Violence) is divided into three rings, Circle 8 (Fraud) is divided into ten bolge, and Circle 9 (Treachery) is divided into four regions. Thus, Hell contains 24 divisions in total.
First Circle (Limbo)
Main article: First circle of hell
The Harrowing of Hell, in a 14th-century illuminated manuscript, the Petites Heures de Jean de Berry
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First Circle (Limbo)
Main article: First circle of hell
The Harrowing of Hell, in a 14th-century illuminated manuscript, the Petites Heures de Jean de Berry
Canto IV
Dante awakens to find that he has crossed the Acheron, and Virgil leads him to the first circle of the abyss, Limbo, where Virgil himself resides. The first circle contains the unbaptised and the virtuous pagans, who, although not sinful enough to warrant damnation, did not accept Christ. Dorothy L. Sayers writes, “After those who refused choice come those without opportunity of choice. They could not, that is, choose Christ; they could, and did, choose human virtue, and for that they have their reward.”[27] Limbo shares many characteristics with the Asphodel Meadows, and thus, the guiltless damned are punished by living in a deficient form of Heaven. Without baptism (“the portal of the faith that you embrace”)[28] they lacked the hope for something greater than rational minds can conceive. When Dante asked if anyone has ever left Limbo, Virgil states that he saw Jesus (“a Mighty One”) descend into Limbo and take Adam, Abel, Noah, Moses, Abraham, David, Rachel, and others (see Limbo of the Patriarchs) into his all-forgiving arms and transport them to Heaven as the first human souls to be saved. The event, known as the Harrowing of Hell, supposedly occurred around AD 33 or 34.
Dante encounters the poets Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan, who include him in their number and make him “sixth in that high company”.[29] They reach the base of a great Castle – the dwelling place of the wisest men of antiquity – surrounded by seven gates, and a flowing brook. After passing through the seven gates, the group comes to an exquisite green meadow and Dante encounters the inhabitants of the Citadel. These include figures associated with the Trojans and their descendants (the Romans): Electra (mother of Troy’s founder Dardanus), Hector, Aeneas, Julius Caesar in his role as Roman general (“in his armor, falcon-eyed”),[30] Camilla, Penthesilea (Queen of the Amazons), King Latinus and his daughter, Lavinia, Lucius Junius Brutus (who overthrew Tarquin to found the Roman Republic), Lucretia, Julia, Marcia, and Cornelia Africana. Dante also sees Saladin, a Muslim military leader known for his battle against the Crusaders, as well as his generous, chivalrous, and merciful conduct.
Dante next encounters a group of philosophers, including Aristotle with Socrates and Plato at his side, as well as Democritus, “Diogenes” (either Diogenes the Cynic or Diogenes of Apollonia), Anaxagoras, Thales, Empedocles, Heraclitus, and “Zeno” (either Zeno of Elea or Zeno of Citium). He sees the scientist Dioscorides, the mythical Greek poets Orpheus and Linus, and Roman statesmen Marcus Tullius Cicero and Seneca. Dante sees the Alexandrian geometer Euclid and Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer and geographer, as well as the physicians Hippocrates and Galen. He also encounters Avicenna, a Persian polymath, and Averroes, a medieval Andalusian polymath known for his commentaries on Aristotle’s works. Dante and Virgil depart from the four other poets and continue their journey.
Although Dante implies that all virtuous non-Christians find themselves here, he later encounters two (Cato of Utica and Statius) in Purgatory and two (Trajan and Ripheus) in Heaven. In Purgatorio XXII, Virgil names several additional inhabitants of Limbo who were not mentioned in the Inferno.[31]
Second Circle (Lust)
Main article: Second circle of hell
Gustave Doré’s depiction of Minos judging sinners at the start of Canto V
Canto V
Dante and Virgil leave Limbo and enter the Second Circle – the first of the circles of Incontinence – where the punishments of Hell proper begin. It is described as “a part where no thing gleams”.[32] They find their way hindered by the serpentine Minos, who judges all of those condemned for active, deliberately willed sin to one of the lower circles. At this point in Inferno, every soul is required to confess all of their sins to Minos, after which Minos sentences each soul to its torment by wrapping his tail around himself a number of times corresponding to the circle of Hell to which the soul must go. The role of Minos here is a combination of his classical role as condemner and unjust judge of the underworld and the role of classical Rhadamanthus, interrogator and confessor of the underworld.[33] This mandatory confession makes it so every soul verbalises and sanctions their own ranking amongst the condemned since these confessions are the sole grounds for their placement in hell.[34] Dante is not forced to make this confession; instead, Virgil rebukes Minos, and he and Dante continue on.
In the second circle of Hell are those overcome by lust. These “carnal malefactors”[35] are condemned for allowing their appetites to sway their reason. These souls are buffeted back and forth by the terrible winds of a violent storm, without rest. This symbolises the power of lust to blow needlessly and aimlessly: “as the lovers drifted into self-indulgence and were carried away by their passions, so now they drift for ever. The bright, voluptuous sin is now seen as it is – a howling darkness of helpless discomfort.”[36] Since lust involves mutual indulgence and is not, therefore, completely self-centred, Dante deems it the least heinous of the sins and its punishment is the most benign within Hell proper.[36][37] The “ruined slope”[38] in this circle is thought to be a reference to the earthquake that occurred after the death of Christ.[39]
Gianciotto Discovers Paolo and Francesca by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
In this circle, Dante sees Semiramis, Dido, Cleopatra, Helen of Troy, Paris, Achilles, Tristan, and many others who were overcome by sexual love during their life. Due to the presence of so many rulers among the lustful, the fifth Canto of Inferno has been called the “canto of the queens”.[40] Dante comes across Francesca da Rimini, who married the deformed Giovanni Malatesta (also known as “Gianciotto”) for political purposes but fell in love with his younger brother Paolo Malatesta; the two began to carry on an adulterous affair. Sometime between 1283 and 1286, Giovanni surprised them together in Francesca’s bedroom and violently stabbed them both to death. Francesca explains:
Love, which in gentlest hearts will soonest bloom
seized my lover with passion for that sweet body
from which I was torn unshriven to my doom.
Love, which permits no loved one not to love,
took me so strongly with delight in him
that we are one in Hell, as we were above.
Love led us to one death. In the depths of Hell
Caïna waits for him who took our lives."
This was the piteous tale they stopped to tell.[41 ]
Francesca further reports that she and Paolo yielded to their love when reading the story of the adultery between Lancelot and Guinevere in the Old French romance Lancelot du Lac. Francesca says, “Galeotto fu 'l libro e chi lo scrisse”.[42] The word Galeotto means ‘pander’, but is also the Italian term for Gallehaut, who acted as an intermediary between Lancelot and Guinevere, encouraging them on to love. John Ciardi renders line 137 as “That book, and he who wrote it, was a pander.”[43] Inspired by Dante, author Giovanni Boccaccio invoked the name Prencipe Galeotto in the alternative title to The Decameron, a 14th-century collection of novellas. Ultimately, Francesca never makes a full confession to Dante. Rather than admit to her and Paolo’s sins, the very reasons they reside in this circle of hell, she consistently takes an erroneously passive role in the adulterous affair. The English poet John Keats, in his sonnet “On a Dream”, imagines what Dante does not write, the point of view of Paolo:
… But to that second circle of sad hell,
Where 'mid the gust, the whirlwind, and the flaw
Of rain and hail-stones, lovers need not tell
Their sorrows. Pale were the sweet lips I saw,
Pale were the lips I kiss’d, and fair the form
I floated with, about that melancholy storm.[4 4]
As he did at the end of Canto III, Dante – overcome by pity and anguish – describes his swoon: “I fainted, as if I had met my death. / And then I fell as a dead body falls”.[ 45]
Third Circle (Gluttony)
Main article: Third circle of hell
Cerberus as illustrated by Gustave Doré
Canto VI
In the third circle, the gluttonous wallow in a vile, putrid slush produced by a ceaseless, foul, icy rain – “a great storm of putrefaction”[46] – as punishment for subjecting their reason to a voracious appetite. Cerberus (described as il gran vermo, literally ‘the great worm’, line 22), the monstrous three-headed beast of Hell, ravenously guards the gluttons lying in the freezing mire, mauling and flaying them with his claws as they howl like dogs. Virgil obtains safe passage past the monster by filling its three mouths with mud.
Dorothy L. Sayers writes that “the surrender to sin which began with mutual indulgence leads by an imperceptible degradation to solitary self-indulgence”.[47] The gluttons grovel in the mud by themselves, sightless and heedless of their neighbours, symbolising the cold, selfish, and empty sensuality of their lives.[47] Just as lust has revealed its true nature in the winds of the previous circle, here the slush reveals the true nature of sensuality – which includes not only overindulgence in food and drink, but also other kinds of addiction. [48]
In this circle, Dante converses with a Florentine contemporary identified as Ciacco, which means ‘hog’.[49] A character with the same nickname later appears in The Decameron of Giovanni Boccaccio, where his gluttonous behaviour is clearly portrayed.[50] Ciacco speaks to Dante regarding strife in Florence between the “White” and “Black” Guelphs, which developed after the Guelph/Ghibelline strife ended with the complete defeat of the Ghibellines. In the first of several political prophecies in the Inferno, Ciacco “predicts” the expulsion of the White Guelphs (Dante’s party) from Florence by the Black Guelphs, aided by Pope Boniface VIII, which marked the start of Dante’s long exile from the city. These events occurred in 1302, prior to when the poem was written but in the future at Easter time of 1300, the time in which the poem is set. [49]
Fourth Circle (Greed)
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In Gustave Doré’s illustrations for the fourth circle, the weights are huge money bags
Canto VII
The Fourth Circle is guarded by a figure Dante names as Pluto: this is Plutus, the deity of wealth in classical mythology. Although the two are often conflated, he is a distinct figure from Pluto (Dis), the classical ruler of the underworld.[nb 2] At the start of Canto VII, he menaces Virgil and Dante with the cryptic phrase Pape Satàn, pape Satàn aleppe, but Virgil protects Dante from him.
Those whose attitude toward material goods deviated from the appropriate mean are punished in the fourth circle. They include the avaricious or miserly (including many “clergymen, and popes and cardinals”),[51] who hoarded possessions, and the prodigal, who squandered them. The hoarders and spendthrifts joust, using great weights as weapons that they push with their chests:
Here, too, I saw a nation of lost souls,
far more than were above: they strained their chests
against enormous weights, and with mad howls
rolled them at one another. Then in haste
they rolled them back, one party shouting out:
“Why do you hoard?” and the other: "Why do you waste? "[52]
Relating this sin of incontinence to the two that preceded it (lust and gluttony), Dorothy L. Sayers writes, “Mutual indulgence has already declined into selfish appetite; now, that appetite becomes aware of the incompatible and equally selfish appetites of other people. Indifference becomes mutual antagonism, imaged here by the antagonism between hoarding and squandering.”[53] The contrast between these two groups leads Virgil to discourse on the nature of Fortune, who raises nations to greatness and later plunges them into poverty, as she shifts, “those empty goods from nation unto nation, clan to clan”.[54] This speech fills what would otherwise be a gap in the poem, since both groups are so absorbed in their activity that Virgil tells Dante that it would be pointless to try to speak to them – indeed, they have lost their individuality and been rendered "unrecognizable ".[55]
Fifth Circle (Wrath)
The fifth circle, illustrated by Stradanus
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The Barque of Dante by Eugène Delacroix
In the swampy, stinking waters of the river Styx – the Fifth Circle – the actively wrathful fight each other viciously on the surface of the slime, while the sullen (the passively wrathful) lie beneath the water, withdrawn, “into a black sulkiness which can find no joy in God or man or the universe”.[53] At the surface of the foul Stygian marsh, Dorothy L. Sayers writes, “the active hatreds rend and snarl at one another; at the bottom, the sullen hatreds lie gurgling, unable even to express themselves for the rage that chokes them”.[53] As the last circle of Incontinence, the “savage self-frustration” of the Fifth Circle marks the end of “that which had its tender and romantic beginnings in the dalliance of indulged passio n”.[53]
Canto VIII
Phlegyas reluctantly transports Dante and Virgil across the Styx in his skiff. On the way they are accosted by Filippo Argenti, a Black Guelph from the prominent Adimari family. Little is known about Argenti, although Giovanni Boccaccio describes an incident in which he lost his temper; early commentators state that Argenti’s brother seized some of Dante’s property after his exile from Florence.[56] Just as Argenti enabled the seizing of Dante’s property, he himself is “seized” by all the other wrathful souls.
When Dante responds “In weeping and in grieving, accursed spirit, may you long remain,”[57] Virgil blesses him with words used to describe Christ himself (Luke 11:27).[58] In a literal sense, this reflects the fact that souls in Hell are eternally fixed in the state they have chosen, but allegorically, it reflects Dante’s beginning awareness of his own sin.[59]
Entrance to Dis
In the distance, Dante perceives high towers that resemble fiery red mosques. Virgil informs him that they are approaching the City of Dis. Dis, itself surrounded by the Stygian marsh, contains Lower Hell within its walls.[60] Dis is one of the names of Pluto, the classical king of the underworld, in addition to being the name of the realm. The walls of Dis are guarded by fallen angels. Virgil is unable to convince them to let Dante and him enter.